DOPPLER ULTRASONOGRAPHY APPLIED TO THE DIAGNOSIS OF TESTICULAR DISORDERS IN STALLIONS
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.35172/rvz.2020.v27.460Keywords:
andrology, testicular artery, equine, ultrasound and subfertility.Abstract
Vascular disturbance directly affects sperm production and quality, so the rapid diagnosis of these changes is extremely important to avoid irreversible damage to reproduction activity. Thereby, Doppler ultrasonography has been shown to be an effective method in the early diagnosis of reproductive disorders related to testicular blood perfusion. In addition, it's possible to monitor treatments in progress for the purpose of to improve therapeutic results and provide better prediction of fertility for stallions. In men, it is already a method used to diagnose fertility disorders, however, in the veterinarian routine the reports are still scarce and the use by equine andrologists for this purpose is sporadic. Thus, the aim of this review is to present the principles of Doppler ultrasonography and its benefits for the equine andrology, in order to expand knowledge about the technique and facilitate the diagnosis of diseases during reproductive examinations of stallions.
References
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4. Pozor MA, McDonnell SM. Color Doppler ultrasound evaluation of testicular blood flow in stallions. Theriogenology. 2004;61:799–810.
5. Guenzel-Apel AR, Moehrke C, Nautrup CP. Colour-coded and pulsed Doppler sonogragraphy of the canine testis, epididymis and prostate gland: Physiological and pathological findings. Reprod Domest Anim. 2001;36:236-240.
6. Turner RM. Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Management of Testicular Degeneration in Stallions. Clin Tech Equine Pract. 2007;6:278–84.
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8. Pozor MA, Nolin M, Roser J, Runyon S, Macperson ML, Kelleman A. Doppler index of vascular impedance as indicator of testicular dysfunction in stallions. J Equine Vet Sci. 2014;34:38–39.
9. Ortega-Ferrusola C, Gracia-Calvo LA, Ezquerra J, Pena FJ. Use of Colour and Spectral Doppler Ultrasonography in Stallion Andrology. Reprod Domest Anim. 2014;49:88–96.
10. Amann RP. A review of anatomy and physiology of the stallion. J Equine Vet Sci. 1981a;1:83-105.
11. Hafez ESE. Anatomia da Reprodução Masculina. In: Hafez B, Hafez ESE. Reprodução Animal. 7.ed. Barueri: Manole, 2004. p.97-140.
12. Chenier ST. Anatomy and examination of the normal testicle. In: Pycock S, Samper JC, McKinnon OA. Current Therapy in Equine Reproduction E-Book. St. Louis: Saunders, 2007. Cap.26, p.167-173.
13. Stickle RL, Fessler JF. Retrospective study of 350 cases of equine cryptorchidism. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1978;172:343-346.
14. Amann RP. Functional anatomy of the adult male. In: McKinnon AO, Squires EL, Vaala E, Varner DD. Equine Reproduction, 2.ed. Philadelphia: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011. p.867-880.
15. Marengo SR. Maturing the sperm: unique mechanisms for modifying integral proteins in the sperm plasma membrane. Anim Reprod Sci. 2008;105:52-63.
16. Setchell BP. Testicular blood supply, lymphatic drainage and secretion of fluid. In: Johnson AD, Gomes WR, Vandemark NL. The Testis,Vol.1. New York: Academic Press,1970. p. 101–239.
17. Budras KD, Mccarthy PH, Fricke W, Richter R. Anatomy of the Dog. London: Manson, 2007.
18. Pozor M, Kolonko D. The testicular artery of stallions in clinical and morphological studies. Med Wet. 2001;57:822–6.
19. Turner RM. Ultrasonography of the genital tract of the stallion. In: Reef VB. Equine Diagnostic Ultrasound. Philadelphia: Wiley-Blackwell, 1998. p.446-479.
20. Love CC. Ultrasonographic evaluation of the testis, epididymis, and spermatic cord of the stallion. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract. 1992;1:167-182.
21. Pozor MA. Evaluation of Testicular Vasculature in Stallions. Clin Tech Equine Pract. 2007;6:271-277.
22. Gabaldi SH, Wolf A. A importância da termorregulação testicular na qualidade do sêmen em touros. Ciências Agrárias Saúde. 2002;2:66-70.
23. Setchell B, Maddocks S, Brooks D. Anatomy, vasculature, innervation and fluids of the male reproductive tract. In: Knobil E, Neill JD. The Physiology of Reproduction. New York: Raven Press, 1994.
24. Palmer E, Driancourt MA. Use of ultrasonic echography in equine gynecology. Theriogenology. 1980;13:203-216.
25. Carvalho CF, Chammas MC, Cerri GG. Princípios físicos do Doppler em ultrassonografia. Ciênc Rural. 2008;38:872-9.
26. Kawakama, J. Física. In: Cerri GG, Rocha DC. Ultra-sonografia abdominal. São Paulo:Sarvier. 1993. cap.1, p.1-14.
27. Vermillon RP. Basic physical principles. In: Snider AR, Serwer GA, Gersony RA. Echocardiography in pediatric heart disease. 2.ed. Missouri: Mosby, 1997. cap.1, p.1-10.
28. Szatmári V, Sótonyi P, Voros K. Normal duplex Doppler waveforms of major abdominal blood vessels in dogs: a review. Vet Radiol Ultrasound. 2001;42:93-107.
29. Cerri GG; Mólnar LJ, Paranaguá-Vezozzo DC. Avaliação dúplex do fígado, sistema portal e vasos viscerais. In: Doppler. São Paulo: Sarvier ,1998. p.120-121.
30. Dogra VS, Gottlieb RH, Oka M, Rubens DJ. Sonography of the scrotum. Radiology. 2003;227:18-36.
31. Wood MM, Romine LE, Lee YK, Richman KM, O’Boyle MK, Paz DA, Chu PK, Pretorius DH. Spectral Doppler signatures waveforms in ultrasonography. Ultrasound Q. 2010; 26:283-299.
32. Biagiotti G, Cavallini G, Modenini F, Vitali G, Gianaroli L. Spermatogenesis and spectral echo-colour Doppler traces rom the main testicular artery. BJU Int. 2002; 90: 903–8.
33. Tarhan S, Gumus B, Gunduz I, Ayyildiz V, Goktan C. Effect of varicocele on testicular artery blood flow in men: color Doppler investigation. Scand J Urol Nephrol. 2003;37:38-42.
34. Menzies PI. Reproductive health management programs. In:Youngquist RS. Current therapy in large animal. Philadelphia:Theriogenology, 1999. p. 643– 649.
35. Ginther OJ, Garcia MC, Bergfelt DR. Embryonic loss in mares: Pregnancy rate, length of interovulatory intervals and progesterone concentrations associated with loss during days 11 to 15. Theriogenology. 1985;24:409-417.
36. Pinggera GM, Mitterberger M, Bartsch G, Strasser H, Gradl J, Aigner F, Pallwein L, Frauscher F. Assessment of the intratesticular resistive index by colour Doppler Ultrasonography Measurements as a Predictor of Spermatogenesis. BJU Int. 2008; 101:722-6.
37. Zelli R, Troisi A, Elad Ngonput A, Cardinali L, Polisca A. Evaluation of testicular artery blood flow by Doppler ultrasonography as a predictor of spermatogenesis in the dog. Res Vet Sci. 2013;95:632–637.
38. Roser JF. Endocrine profiles infertile, subfertile and infertile stallions: Testicular reponse to human chorionic gonadotropin in infertile stallions. Biol Reprod Monog. 1995;5:229-39.
39. Bicudo SD, Siqueira JB, Meira C. Patologias do sistema reprodutor de touros. São Paulo; 2007 [cited 2020 10 Jan]. Available from: <http://www.biologico. sp.gov.br/docs/bio/v69_2/p43-48.pdf>.
40. Filho AAM, Oliveira VK. Torção do testículo: como acontece? ABCMED, 2012 [cited 2020 14 marc]. Available from: <https://www.abc.med.br/p/saude-do-homem/331755/torcao+do+testiculo+como+acontece.htm>.
41. Ormond Jk. Recurrent torsion of the spermatic cord. Am J Surg. 1930;12:479-482.
42. Edwards JF. Pathologic conditions of the stallion reproductive tract. Anim Reprod Sci. 2008;107:197–207.
43. Schumacher J. Reproductive system. In: Auer JA, Stick JA. Equine Surgery. 4.ed. Missouri: Elsevier Saunders, 2012. p.809-812.
44. Pavlica P, Barozzi L. Imaging of the acute scrotum. Eur Radiol. 2001;11:220–8.
45. Wallace NG, Amaya M. Normal and developmental variations in the anogenital examination of children. Child Abuse Negl. 2011;69-81.
46. Kryger JV. Acute and Chronic Scrotal Swelling. In: Nelson Pediatric Symptom-Based Diagnosis. 2a ed, 2018.p.330-338.
47. Dudea SM, Ciurea A, Chiorean A, Botar-Jid C. Doppler applications in testicular and scrotal disease. Med Ultrason.2010;12:43–51.
48. Tanji N, Fujiwara T, Kaji H, Nishio S, Yokokama M. Histologic evaluation of spermatic veins in patients with varicocele. Int J Urol. 1999;7: 365-360.
49. Gat Y, Zukerman Z, Bachar GN, Feldberg D, Belenky A and Gornish M. Adolescent varicocele: is it a unilateral disease. Urology. 2003;62:742–747.
50. Gat Y, Zukerman Z, Chakraborty J, Gornish M. Varicocele, hypoxia and male infertility. Fluid mechanics analysis of the impaired testicular venous drainage system. Hum Reprod. 2005;20: 2614.
51. Matthews GJ, Matthews ED and Goldstein M. Induction of spermatogenesis and achievement of pregnancy after microsurgical varicocelectomy in men with azoospermia and severe oligoasthenospermia. Fertil Steril. 1998.70:71–75.
52. Gat Y, Bachar GN, Zukerman Z and Gornish M. Varicocele: a bilateral disease. Fertil Steril. 2004a;81:424–429.
53. Trojian T, Lishnak TS, Heiman D. Epididymitis and Orchitis: An overview. Am Fam Physician. 2009;79(7):583-587.
54. Wilson KE, Dascanio JJ, Duncan R, Delling U, Lad SM. Orchitis, epididymitis and pampiniform phlebitis in a stallion. EVE. 2007;239-243.
55. Jee WH, Choe BY, Byun JY, Shinn KS, Hwan TK. Resistive index of the intrascrotal artery in scrotal inflammatory disease. Acta Radiol.1997;38:1026-1030.
56. Lopez MG, Medina BA, Ortega HR, Rabaza EJ, Romero MMI, Hernandez AMJ. Usefulness of Doppler-color ultrasonography and identification of resistance indexes as early indicators of testicular infarction secondary to orchiepididymitis. Actas Urol Esp. 2000;24:43.
57. Brinsko SP. Neoplasia of the male reproductive tract. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract. 1998; 14:517-533.
58. Schumacher J, Varner DD. Neoplasia of the stallion’s reproductive tract. In: McKinnon AO, Voss JL. Equine Reproduction. Philadelphia:Lea & Febiger, 1993.p 871-875.
59. Esen B, Yaman MO, Baltac S. Should we rely on Doppler ultrasound for evaluation of testicular solid lesions. World J Urol. 2018;36(8):1263–1266.
60. Bigliardi E, Denti L, De Cesaris V, Bertocchi M, Di Ianni F, Parmigiani E, Bresciani C, Cantoni AM. Color doppler ultrasound imaging of blood flows variations in neoplastic and non-neoplastic testicular lesions in dogs. Reprod Dom Anim. 2018;64:63-71.
2. Ginther OJ, Utt MD. Doppler Ultrasound in Equine Reproduction: Principles, Techniques, and Potential. J Equine Vet Sci. 2004;24:516-526.
3. Carvalho CF, Chammas MC, Cerri GG. Princípios físicos do Doppler em ultrassonografia. Ciênc Rural. 2008;38:872-9.
4. Pozor MA, McDonnell SM. Color Doppler ultrasound evaluation of testicular blood flow in stallions. Theriogenology. 2004;61:799–810.
5. Guenzel-Apel AR, Moehrke C, Nautrup CP. Colour-coded and pulsed Doppler sonogragraphy of the canine testis, epididymis and prostate gland: Physiological and pathological findings. Reprod Domest Anim. 2001;36:236-240.
6. Turner RM. Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Management of Testicular Degeneration in Stallions. Clin Tech Equine Pract. 2007;6:278–84.
7. Ortiz-Rodriguez JM, Anel-Lopez L, Martín-Muñoz P, Alvarez M, Gaitskell-Phillips G, Anel L, Rodrıguez-Medina P, Peña FJ, Ortega-Ferrusola C. Pulse Doppler ultrasound as a tool for the diagnosis of chronic testicular dysfunction in stallions. Plos One. 2017; 12(5):e017587.
8. Pozor MA, Nolin M, Roser J, Runyon S, Macperson ML, Kelleman A. Doppler index of vascular impedance as indicator of testicular dysfunction in stallions. J Equine Vet Sci. 2014;34:38–39.
9. Ortega-Ferrusola C, Gracia-Calvo LA, Ezquerra J, Pena FJ. Use of Colour and Spectral Doppler Ultrasonography in Stallion Andrology. Reprod Domest Anim. 2014;49:88–96.
10. Amann RP. A review of anatomy and physiology of the stallion. J Equine Vet Sci. 1981a;1:83-105.
11. Hafez ESE. Anatomia da Reprodução Masculina. In: Hafez B, Hafez ESE. Reprodução Animal. 7.ed. Barueri: Manole, 2004. p.97-140.
12. Chenier ST. Anatomy and examination of the normal testicle. In: Pycock S, Samper JC, McKinnon OA. Current Therapy in Equine Reproduction E-Book. St. Louis: Saunders, 2007. Cap.26, p.167-173.
13. Stickle RL, Fessler JF. Retrospective study of 350 cases of equine cryptorchidism. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1978;172:343-346.
14. Amann RP. Functional anatomy of the adult male. In: McKinnon AO, Squires EL, Vaala E, Varner DD. Equine Reproduction, 2.ed. Philadelphia: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011. p.867-880.
15. Marengo SR. Maturing the sperm: unique mechanisms for modifying integral proteins in the sperm plasma membrane. Anim Reprod Sci. 2008;105:52-63.
16. Setchell BP. Testicular blood supply, lymphatic drainage and secretion of fluid. In: Johnson AD, Gomes WR, Vandemark NL. The Testis,Vol.1. New York: Academic Press,1970. p. 101–239.
17. Budras KD, Mccarthy PH, Fricke W, Richter R. Anatomy of the Dog. London: Manson, 2007.
18. Pozor M, Kolonko D. The testicular artery of stallions in clinical and morphological studies. Med Wet. 2001;57:822–6.
19. Turner RM. Ultrasonography of the genital tract of the stallion. In: Reef VB. Equine Diagnostic Ultrasound. Philadelphia: Wiley-Blackwell, 1998. p.446-479.
20. Love CC. Ultrasonographic evaluation of the testis, epididymis, and spermatic cord of the stallion. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract. 1992;1:167-182.
21. Pozor MA. Evaluation of Testicular Vasculature in Stallions. Clin Tech Equine Pract. 2007;6:271-277.
22. Gabaldi SH, Wolf A. A importância da termorregulação testicular na qualidade do sêmen em touros. Ciências Agrárias Saúde. 2002;2:66-70.
23. Setchell B, Maddocks S, Brooks D. Anatomy, vasculature, innervation and fluids of the male reproductive tract. In: Knobil E, Neill JD. The Physiology of Reproduction. New York: Raven Press, 1994.
24. Palmer E, Driancourt MA. Use of ultrasonic echography in equine gynecology. Theriogenology. 1980;13:203-216.
25. Carvalho CF, Chammas MC, Cerri GG. Princípios físicos do Doppler em ultrassonografia. Ciênc Rural. 2008;38:872-9.
26. Kawakama, J. Física. In: Cerri GG, Rocha DC. Ultra-sonografia abdominal. São Paulo:Sarvier. 1993. cap.1, p.1-14.
27. Vermillon RP. Basic physical principles. In: Snider AR, Serwer GA, Gersony RA. Echocardiography in pediatric heart disease. 2.ed. Missouri: Mosby, 1997. cap.1, p.1-10.
28. Szatmári V, Sótonyi P, Voros K. Normal duplex Doppler waveforms of major abdominal blood vessels in dogs: a review. Vet Radiol Ultrasound. 2001;42:93-107.
29. Cerri GG; Mólnar LJ, Paranaguá-Vezozzo DC. Avaliação dúplex do fígado, sistema portal e vasos viscerais. In: Doppler. São Paulo: Sarvier ,1998. p.120-121.
30. Dogra VS, Gottlieb RH, Oka M, Rubens DJ. Sonography of the scrotum. Radiology. 2003;227:18-36.
31. Wood MM, Romine LE, Lee YK, Richman KM, O’Boyle MK, Paz DA, Chu PK, Pretorius DH. Spectral Doppler signatures waveforms in ultrasonography. Ultrasound Q. 2010; 26:283-299.
32. Biagiotti G, Cavallini G, Modenini F, Vitali G, Gianaroli L. Spermatogenesis and spectral echo-colour Doppler traces rom the main testicular artery. BJU Int. 2002; 90: 903–8.
33. Tarhan S, Gumus B, Gunduz I, Ayyildiz V, Goktan C. Effect of varicocele on testicular artery blood flow in men: color Doppler investigation. Scand J Urol Nephrol. 2003;37:38-42.
34. Menzies PI. Reproductive health management programs. In:Youngquist RS. Current therapy in large animal. Philadelphia:Theriogenology, 1999. p. 643– 649.
35. Ginther OJ, Garcia MC, Bergfelt DR. Embryonic loss in mares: Pregnancy rate, length of interovulatory intervals and progesterone concentrations associated with loss during days 11 to 15. Theriogenology. 1985;24:409-417.
36. Pinggera GM, Mitterberger M, Bartsch G, Strasser H, Gradl J, Aigner F, Pallwein L, Frauscher F. Assessment of the intratesticular resistive index by colour Doppler Ultrasonography Measurements as a Predictor of Spermatogenesis. BJU Int. 2008; 101:722-6.
37. Zelli R, Troisi A, Elad Ngonput A, Cardinali L, Polisca A. Evaluation of testicular artery blood flow by Doppler ultrasonography as a predictor of spermatogenesis in the dog. Res Vet Sci. 2013;95:632–637.
38. Roser JF. Endocrine profiles infertile, subfertile and infertile stallions: Testicular reponse to human chorionic gonadotropin in infertile stallions. Biol Reprod Monog. 1995;5:229-39.
39. Bicudo SD, Siqueira JB, Meira C. Patologias do sistema reprodutor de touros. São Paulo; 2007 [cited 2020 10 Jan]. Available from: <http://www.biologico. sp.gov.br/docs/bio/v69_2/p43-48.pdf>.
40. Filho AAM, Oliveira VK. Torção do testículo: como acontece? ABCMED, 2012 [cited 2020 14 marc]. Available from: <https://www.abc.med.br/p/saude-do-homem/331755/torcao+do+testiculo+como+acontece.htm>.
41. Ormond Jk. Recurrent torsion of the spermatic cord. Am J Surg. 1930;12:479-482.
42. Edwards JF. Pathologic conditions of the stallion reproductive tract. Anim Reprod Sci. 2008;107:197–207.
43. Schumacher J. Reproductive system. In: Auer JA, Stick JA. Equine Surgery. 4.ed. Missouri: Elsevier Saunders, 2012. p.809-812.
44. Pavlica P, Barozzi L. Imaging of the acute scrotum. Eur Radiol. 2001;11:220–8.
45. Wallace NG, Amaya M. Normal and developmental variations in the anogenital examination of children. Child Abuse Negl. 2011;69-81.
46. Kryger JV. Acute and Chronic Scrotal Swelling. In: Nelson Pediatric Symptom-Based Diagnosis. 2a ed, 2018.p.330-338.
47. Dudea SM, Ciurea A, Chiorean A, Botar-Jid C. Doppler applications in testicular and scrotal disease. Med Ultrason.2010;12:43–51.
48. Tanji N, Fujiwara T, Kaji H, Nishio S, Yokokama M. Histologic evaluation of spermatic veins in patients with varicocele. Int J Urol. 1999;7: 365-360.
49. Gat Y, Zukerman Z, Bachar GN, Feldberg D, Belenky A and Gornish M. Adolescent varicocele: is it a unilateral disease. Urology. 2003;62:742–747.
50. Gat Y, Zukerman Z, Chakraborty J, Gornish M. Varicocele, hypoxia and male infertility. Fluid mechanics analysis of the impaired testicular venous drainage system. Hum Reprod. 2005;20: 2614.
51. Matthews GJ, Matthews ED and Goldstein M. Induction of spermatogenesis and achievement of pregnancy after microsurgical varicocelectomy in men with azoospermia and severe oligoasthenospermia. Fertil Steril. 1998.70:71–75.
52. Gat Y, Bachar GN, Zukerman Z and Gornish M. Varicocele: a bilateral disease. Fertil Steril. 2004a;81:424–429.
53. Trojian T, Lishnak TS, Heiman D. Epididymitis and Orchitis: An overview. Am Fam Physician. 2009;79(7):583-587.
54. Wilson KE, Dascanio JJ, Duncan R, Delling U, Lad SM. Orchitis, epididymitis and pampiniform phlebitis in a stallion. EVE. 2007;239-243.
55. Jee WH, Choe BY, Byun JY, Shinn KS, Hwan TK. Resistive index of the intrascrotal artery in scrotal inflammatory disease. Acta Radiol.1997;38:1026-1030.
56. Lopez MG, Medina BA, Ortega HR, Rabaza EJ, Romero MMI, Hernandez AMJ. Usefulness of Doppler-color ultrasonography and identification of resistance indexes as early indicators of testicular infarction secondary to orchiepididymitis. Actas Urol Esp. 2000;24:43.
57. Brinsko SP. Neoplasia of the male reproductive tract. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract. 1998; 14:517-533.
58. Schumacher J, Varner DD. Neoplasia of the stallion’s reproductive tract. In: McKinnon AO, Voss JL. Equine Reproduction. Philadelphia:Lea & Febiger, 1993.p 871-875.
59. Esen B, Yaman MO, Baltac S. Should we rely on Doppler ultrasound for evaluation of testicular solid lesions. World J Urol. 2018;36(8):1263–1266.
60. Bigliardi E, Denti L, De Cesaris V, Bertocchi M, Di Ianni F, Parmigiani E, Bresciani C, Cantoni AM. Color doppler ultrasound imaging of blood flows variations in neoplastic and non-neoplastic testicular lesions in dogs. Reprod Dom Anim. 2018;64:63-71.
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2020-12-16
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Freitas Silva D, Augusto Monteiro G. DOPPLER ULTRASONOGRAPHY APPLIED TO THE DIAGNOSIS OF TESTICULAR DISORDERS IN STALLIONS. RVZ [Internet]. 2020 Dec. 16 [cited 2024 Nov. 21];27:1-17. Available from: https://rvz.emnuvens.com.br/rvz/article/view/460
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