SYSTEMATIC REVIEW: THE IMPORTANCE OF WATER IN THE EPIDEMIOLOGY OF CRYPTOSPORIDIOSIS IN BRAZIL
Keywords:
Cryptosporidium, cryptosporidiosis, Public health, Environmental contamination, waterborne transmissionAbstract
This is a review of the scientific literature on the presence and types of Cryptosporidium spp. in Brazilian water sources. We assess the importance of waterborne oocyst in the epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis in Brazil. The PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Scielo databases were searched using the following keywords: “Cryptosporidium and Waterborne”, “Cryptosporidium and Waterborne”, “Cryptosporidium and Water”, “Cryptosporidium and Brazil”, “Cryptosporidium and Environment”, “Cryptosporidium and Brazil and Environmental”, “Cryptosporidium and Brazil and waterborne and Environmental”. We discuss original articles focused on waterborne cryptosporidiosis published in Portuguese or English and reporting research performed in Brazil. We excluded studies undertaken in countires other than Brazil and articles not directly relevant to waterborne cryptosporidiosis. Using the above listed search terms, a total of 149 articles were found in PubMed, of which 10 were met the inclusion criteria; in the ScienceDirect database, we found 306 articles all of which were excluded because they were foreign articles. In Scielo, 214 articles were found, of which we selected 8. Thus, 18 studies were analyzed. According to these publications, a large part of the Brazilian population is at risk of infection by this protozoan. We conclude that research on waterborne transmission of cryptosporidium should be intensified and should include regions of Brazil which are understudied. This research is particularly relevant to populations affected by AIDS or living in communities where AIDS is highly prevalent.
References
Fayer R, Morgan U, Upton SJ. Epidemiology of Cryptosporidium: transmission, detection
and identification. Int J Parasitol. 2000;30(12-13):1305-22.
Fayer R, Speer CA, Dubey JP. The general biology of Cryptosporidium. In: Fayer R.
Cryptosporidium and Cryptosporidiosis. Boston: CRC Press; 1997. p.1- 42.
Carreno RA, Martins DS, Barta JR. Cryptosporidium is more closely related to the
gregarines than to coccidia as shown by phylogenetic analysis of apicomplexan parasites
inferred using small-subunit ribosomal RNA gene sequences. Parasitol Res.
;85(11):899-904.
Plutzer J, Karanis P. Genetic polymorphism in Cryptosporidium species: an update. Vet
Parasitol. 2009;165(3-4):187-99.
Smith HV, Nichols RAB. Cryptosporidium: detection in water and food. Exp Parasitol.
;124(1):61-79.
Meireles MV. Cryptosporidium e criptosporidiose uma análise crítica. In: 14º Congresso
Brasileiro de Parasitologia Veterinária; 2006; Ribeirão Preto. Ribeirão Preto: Centro de
Convenções de Ribeirão Preto; 2006. p.153-4.
Fayer R, Trout JM, Xiao L, Morgan UM, Lal AA, Dubey JP. Cryptosporidium canis n. sp.
from domestic dogs. J Parasitol. 2001;87(6):1415-22.
Cacciò SM, Pinter E, Fantini R, Mezzaroma I, Pozio E. Human infection with
Cryptosporidium felis: case report and literature review. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8(1):85-6.
Thompson RCA, Palmer CS, O´Handley R. The public health and clinical significance of
Giardia and Cryptosporidium in domestic animals. Vet J. 2008;177(1):18-25.
Smith RP, Chalmers RM, Elwin K, Clifton-Hadley FA, Mueller-Doblies D, Watkins J, et
al. Investigation of the role of companion animals in the zoonotic transmission of
cryptosporidiosis. Zoonoses Public Health. 2009;56(1):24-33.
Cardona GA, Carabin H, Goñi P, Arriola L, Robinson G, Fernández-Crespo JC, et al.
Identification and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in children
and cattle populations from the province of Álava, North of Spain. Sci Total Environ.
;412-413:101-8.
Hira KG, Mackay MR, Hempstead AD, Ahmed S, Karim MM, O'Connor RM, et al.
Genetic diversity of Cryptosporidium spp. from Bangladeshi children. J Clin Microbiol.
;49(6):2307-10.
Lim YA, Iqbal A, Surin J, Sim BL, Jex AR, Nolan MJ, et al. First genetic classification
of Cryptosporidium and Giardia from HIV/AIDS patients in Malaysia. Infect Genet
Evol. 2011;11(5):968-74.
Richardson AJ, Frankenberg RA, Buck AC, Selkon JB, Colbourne JS, Parsons JW, et al.
An outbreak of waterborne cryptosporidiosis in Swindon and Oxfordshire. Epidemiol
Infect. 1991;107(3):485-95.
Mac Kenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, Gradus MS, Blair KA, Peterson DE, et al. A
massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the
public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994;331(3):161-7.
Tzipori S, Giovani W. A hundred-year retrospective on cryptosporidiosis. Trends
Parasitol. 2008;24(4):184-9.
Savioli L, Smith H., Thompson A. Giardia and Cryptosporidium join the ‘Neglected
Diseases Initiative’. Trends Parasitol. 2006;22(5):203-8.
Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística [internet]. Rio de Janeiro: IBGE; 2012
[cited 2012 Jan 14]. Available from: www.ibge.gov.br.
Newman RD, Wuhib T, Lima AA, Guerrant RL, Sears CL. Environmental sources of
Cryptosporidium in an urban slum in northeastern Brazil. Am J Trop Med Hyg.
;49(2):270-5.
Gamba RC, Ciapina EMP, Espíndola, RS, Pacheco A, Pellizari VH. Detection of
Cryptosporidium sp. oocysts in groundwater for human consumption in Itaquaquecetuba
City, S. Paulo-Brazil. Braz J Microbiol. 2000;31(2):151-3.
Franco RMB, Rocha-Eberhardt R, Cantusio-Neto R. Occurrence of Cryptosporidium
oocysts and Giardia cysts in raw water from the Atibaia River, Campinas, Brazil. Rev
Inst Med Trop São Paulo. 2001;43(2):109-11.
Farias EWC, Gamba RC, Pellizari VH. Detection of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts in raw
sewage and creek water in the city of São Paulo, Brazil. Braz J Microbiol. 2002;33(1):41-3.
Feitosa FLF, Shimamura GM, Roberto T, Meireles MV, Nunes CM, Ciarlini PC, et al.
Prevalência de criptosporidiose em bezerros na região de Araçatuba, Estado de São
Paulo, Brasil. Cienc Rural. 2004;34(1):189-93.
Santos LU, Bonatti TR, Cantusio-Neto R, Franco RMB. Occurrence of Giardia cysts and
Cryptosporidium oocysts in activated sludge samples in Campinas, SP, Brazil. Rev Inst
Med Trop São Paulo. 2004;46(6):309-13.
Hachich EM, Sato MI, Galvani AT, Menegon JR, Mucci JL. Giardia and
Cryptosporidium in source waters of São Paulo State, Brazil. Water Sci Technol.
;50(1):239-45.
Iacovski RB, Barardi CR, Simões CM. Detection and enumeration of Cryptosporidium
sp. oocysts in sewage sludge samples from the city of Florianópolis (Brazil) by using
immunomagnetic separation combined with indirect immunofluorescence assay. Waste
Manag Res. 2004;22(3):171-6.
Neto RC, Santos LU, Franco RM. Evaluation of activated sludge treatment and the
efficiency of the disinfection of Giardia species cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts by
UV at a sludge treatment plant in Campinas, south-east Brazil. Water Sci Technol.
;54(3):89-94.
Rondello BT, Bueno FRM, Neto RC. Comparison of two methodologies for detection of
Giardia spp. cysts and Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts in activated sludge samples from a
sewage treatment plant in the city of Campinas, São Paulo State, Brazil. J Water Health.
;5(4):609-14.
Dias GMF, Bevilacqua PD, Bastos RKX, Oliveira AA, Campos GMM. Giardia spp. e
Cryptosporidium spp. em água de manancial superficial de abastecimento contaminada
por dejetos humano e animal. Arq Bras Med Vet Zootec. 2008;60(6):1291-300.
Machado ECL, Stamford TLM, Machado EHL, Soares DS, Albuquerque MNL.
Ocorrência de oocistos de Cryptosporidium spp. em águas superficiais na região
metropolitana de Recife-PE. Arq Bras Med Vet Zootec. 2009;61(6):1459-62.
Aldom JE, Chagla AH. Recovery of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts from water by a
membrane filter dissolution method. Lett Appl Microbiol.1995;20(3):186-7.
Smith HV, Campbell BM, Paton CA, Nichols RA. Significance of enhanced
morphological detection of Cryptosporidium sp. oocysts in water concentrates
determined by using 4',6'-diamidino-2-phenylindole and immunofluorescence
microscopy. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002;68(1):5198-201.
Cantusio-Neto R, Franco RMB. Ocorrência de oocistos de Cryptosporidium spp. e cistos
de Giardia spp. em diferentes pontos do processo de tratamento de água, em Campinas,
São Paulo, Brasil. Hig Aliment. 2004;18(118):52-9.
Machado ECL. Ocorrência de oocistos de Cryptosporidium spp. em águas superficiais na
região metropolitana de Recife/PE [tese]. Recife: Universidade Federal de Pernambuco;
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Method 1622: Cryptosporidium in water
by filtration/IMS/FA. Washington, DC: Environmental Protection Agency/Office of
Water; 2001. 51p. (EPA-821-R-99-061).
Fraser RH, Barten PK, Pinney DAK. Predicting stream pathogen loading from livestock
using a geographical information system-based delivery model. J Environ Qual.
;27:935-45.
Razzolini MT, da Silva TF, Bastos VK. Detection of Giardia and Cryptosporidium
cysts/oocysts in watersheds and drinking water sources in Brazil urban areas. J Water
Health. 2010;8(2):399-404.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Method 1623: Cryptosporidium and
Giardia in Water by Filtration/IMS/FA. Washington, DC: Environmental Protection
Agency/Office of Water; 2005. 68p. (EPA-821-R-99-061).
Neto RC, dos Santos LU, Sato MI, Franco R.M. Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp.
in surface water supply of Campinas, southeast Brazil. Water Sci Technol.
;62(1):217-22.
Santos LU, Cantusio-Neto R, Franco RMB, Guimarães JR. Detecção de oocistos de
Cryptosporidium spp. e cistos de Giardia spp. em amostras de esgoto bruto ou tratado:
avaliação crítica dos métodos. Eng Sanit Ambient. 2011;16(2):115-20.
Araújo RS, Dropa M, Fernandes LN, Carvalho TT, Sato MI, Soares RM, et al. Genotypic
characterization of Cryptosporidium hominis from water samples in São Paulo, Brazil.
Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2011;85(5):834-8.
Branco N, Leal DA, Franco RM. A parasitological survey of natural water springs and in
habitants of a tourist city in southeastern Brazil. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis.
;12(5):410-7.
Sato MI, Galvani AT, Padula JA, Nardocci AC, Lauretto MS, Razzolini MT, et al.
Assessing the infection risk of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in public drinking water
delivered by surface water systems in Sao Paulo State, Brazil. Sci Total Environ.
;442:389-96.
World Health Organization. Guidelines for drinking-water quality. 4th ed. Geneva: World
Health Organization; 2011.
Ministério da Saúde (BR). Boletim Epidemiológico AIDS e DST. Brasília: Ministério da
Saúde; 2012.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Este obra está licenciado com uma Licença Creative Commons Atribuição-NãoComercial 4.0 Internacional.
