PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF PAIN AND USE OF OPIOIDS IN CATTLE
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.35172/rvz.2021.v28.604Keywords:
analgesia, welfare, pain control, production medicineAbstract
Pain control is an area that is currently gaining great importance, mainly for beef production. Determining the origin and causes of the painful process is a task that demands great attention from professionals, especially so that they can intervene in the best possible way. In addition to seeking to remove the factors that prompted them, they act in the prevention and treatment of the pain mechanism with the use of various drugs available on the market. The use of opioids has been the subject of studies as a pharmacological strategy for the control and management of animal suffering, a fact that induces serious losses and losses for bovine production, at the productive, reproductive and economic level. However, more and more studies are needed regarding the benefits they can provide to cattle, since there are some limitations such as cost and adverse effects.
References
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4. Wagner BK, Nixon E, Robles I, Baynes RE, Coetzee JF, Pairis-Garcia MD. Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs: Pharmacokinetics and Mitigation of Procedural-Pain in Cattle. Animals. 2021;11(2):282. doi: 10.3390/ani11020282.
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7. Whay HR, Shearer JK. The Impact of Lameness on Welfare of the Dairy Cow. Vet Clin North Food Anim Pract. 2017;33(2):153-164. doi: 10.1016/j.cvfa.2017.02.008.
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10. Ryan S, Bacon H, Edenburg N, Hazel S, Jouppi R, Lee N, Seksel K, Takashima G. WSAVA animal welfare guidelines for veterinary practitioners and veterinary teams. J Small Anim Pract. 2019;60(5):1-46. doi: 10.1111/jsap.12998.
11. Robles I, Arruda AG, Nixon E, Johnstone E, Wagner B, Edwards-Callaway L, Baynes R, Coetzee J, Pairis-Garcia M. Producer and Veterinarian Perspectives towards Pain Management Practices in the US Cattle Industry. Animals. 2021;11(1):209. doi: 10.3390/ani11010209.
12. Becker J, Reist M, Steiner A. Factors influencing the attitudes of cattle veterinarians, farmers, and claw trimmers towards the pain associated with the treatment of sole ulcers and the sensitivity to pain of dairy cows. Vet J. 2014;200(1):38-43 doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.01.016.
13. Laven R. Managing pain in lame cattle. Livestock. 2018; 23(4):161-167. doi: 10.12968/live.2018.23.4.161.
14. Stilwell GT, Ferrador AM, Santos MS, Domingues JM, Carolino N. Use of topical local anesthetics to control pain during treatment of hoof lesions in dairy cows. J Dairy Sci. 2019;102(7):6383-6390. doi: 10.3168/jds.2018-15820.
15. Anderson DE, Muir WW. Pain Management in Ruminants. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract. 2005;21(1):19-31. doi: 10.1016/j.cvfa.2004.12.008.
16. Canozzi MEA, Borges JAR, Barcellos JOJ. Attitudes of cattle veterinarians and animal scientists to pain and painful procedures in Brazil. Prev Vet Med. 2020;177:104909. doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2020.104909.
17. Remnant JG, Tremlett A, Huxley JN, Hudson CD. Clinician attitudes to pain and use of analgesia in cattle: where are we 10 years on? Vet Rec. 2017;181(15):400. doi: 10.1136/vr.104428.
18. Sunilchandra U, Ravikumar C, Rashmi R. Analgesics in animal pain management. Pharma Innovation J. 2020;9(4):205-209.
19. Raja SN, Carr DB, Cohen M, Finnerup NB, Flor H, Gibson S, Keefe FJ, Mogil JS, Ringkamp M, Sluka KA, Song X-J, Stevens B, Sullivan MD, Tutelman PR, Ushida T, Vader K. The revised International Association for the Study of Pain definition of pain: concepts, challenges, and compromises. Pain. 2020;00(00):1-7. doi: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001939.
20. Penning JP. Pre-emptive analgesia: what does it mean to the clinical anaesthetist? Can J Anaesth.1996; 43(2):97-101. doi: 10.1007/BF03011247.
21. Fein A. Nociceptors and the Perception of Pain. Farmington: University of Connecticut Health Center; 2014.
22. Rossetti RB, Mastrocinque S, Macedo J. Treatment of persistent postoperative pain after ovariohysterectomy in female dogs: a comparative study between tramadol or maropitant. Revista Interdisciplinar Saúde Educação. 2020;1(2):109-121.
23. Bond GB, Almeida R, Ostrensky A, Molento CFM. Welfare assessment methods and critical points for dairy cattle. Cienc. Rural.2012;42(7):1286-1293. doi: 10.1590/S0103-84782012005000044.
24. Fantoni DT, Mastrocinque S. Fisiopatologia e Controle da Dor. In: Fantoni DT, Cortopassi SRG. Anestesia em Cães e Gatos. 2nd ed. São Paulo: Roca; 2010. Chap. 35, p. 521-544.
25. Alimura AAS, Tognoli GK. Pathophysiology of pain and the use of morphine for analgesia in cats. REVET. 2021;6(1):1-9.
26. Lorenz MD, Coates JR, Kent M. Handbook of veterinary neurology. 5th ed. Missouri: Elsevier Saunders; 2011. Pain; p. 413-431
27. Moura, DDMG. Pathophysiology of Chronic Pain [dissertation] [Internet]. Coimbra (Portugal): Faculdade de Medicina – Universidade D Coimbra; 2020 [cited 2021 Abr 3]. Available from: https://www.academia.edu/44681839/MESTRADO_INTEGRADO_EM_MEDICINA_TRABALHO_FINAL_Fisiopatologia_da_Dor_Cr%C3%B3nica_ARTIGO_DE_REVIS%C3%83O_%C3%81REA_CIENT%C3%8DFICA_DE_FISIOPATOLOGIA.
28. Teixeira FM. Comparative assessment of the effect of anti-inflammatory drugs with acupuncture on the model of post-incisional pain in rats. [dissertation] [Internet]. Seropédica (Rio de Janeiro): Instituto de Veterinária, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro; 2010 [cited 2021 Abr 3]. Available from: https://tede.ufrrj.br/jspui/handle/jspui/4040.
29. Sneddon LU. Comparative Physiology of Nociception and Pain. Physiology. 2018;33(1):63-73. doi: 10.1152/physiol.00022.2017.
30. Posso IP, Romanek RM, Gatto BEO. Dor Aguda e Inflamação. In: Bagatini A, CangianI LM, Carneiro AF, Nunes RR. Bases do ensino da Anestesiologia. Rio de Janeiro: Sociedade Brasileira de Anestesiologia; 2017. Chap ME 30 Ponto 50, p.1119-1140.
31. Klaumann PR, Wouk AFPF, Sillas T. Pathophysiology of pain. Arch Vet Sci.2008;13(1):1-12. doi: 10.5380/avs.v13i1.11532.
32. Júnior JOO, Junior CSAP, Cohen CP. Inflammatory mediators of neuropathic pain. Rev Dor.2016;17(1):35-42. doi: 10.5935/1806-0013.20160045.
33. Aleixo GAS, Tudury EA, Coelho MCOC, Andrade LSS, Bessa ALNG. Pain treatment in small animal: physiopathology and recognition of pain (literature review: part I). Med Vet (UFRPE).2016;10(1):19-24.
34. Silva FL, Silva CRA, Costa APR. Surgical treatment of pain in dogs and cats: Review. Vet Foco. 2011;9(1):57-75.
35. Jang Y, Kim M, Hwang SW. Molecular mechanisms underlying the actions of arachidonic acid-derived prostaglandins on peripheral nociception. J Neuroinflamm.2020;17(1):30. doi: 10.1186/s12974-020-1703-1.
36. Zakka T, Jacobsen-Teixeira M. Dor neuropática. Diagnóstico e tratamento. Med Int Méx. 2020;36(1):9-12. doi: 10.24245/mim.v36id.3781.
37. Melzack R, Wall PD. Pain Mechanisms: A New Theory. AAAS.1965; 150(3699):971-979.
38. Melzack R, Wall, PD. Textbook of Pain. 4th ed. London: Churchill Livingstone; 1999.
39. Ashmawi HÁ, Freire GMG. Peripheral and central sensitization. Rev Dor.2016;17(1):31-34. doi: 10.5935/1806-0013.20160044.
40. Coetzee JF, Shearer JK, Stock ML, Kleinhenz MD, Van Amstel SR. An Update on the Assessment and Management of Pain Associated with Lameness in Cattle. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract. 2017;33(2):389-411. doi: 10.1016/j.cvfa.2017.02.009.
41. Kukanich B; Wiese AJ. Opioids. In: Grimm KA, Lamont LA, Tranquilli WJ, Greene SA, Robertson SA. Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia: Lumb and Jones. 5th ed. Iowa: Wiley Blackwell; 2015. Chap. 11, 207-226.
42. Pasternak GW, Pan Y-X. Mu opioids and their receptors: evolution of a concept. Pharmacol Rev. 2013;65(4):1257-317. doi: 10.1124/pr.112.007138.
43. Anderson DE, Edmondson MA. Prevention and management of surgical pain in cattle. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract.2013;29(1):157-84. doi: 10.1016/j.cvfa.2012.11.006.
44. Coetzee JF. A review of pain assessment techniques and pharmacological approaches to pain relief after bovine castration: Practical implications for cattle production within the United States. Appl Anim Behav Sci. 2011;135:192-213. doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2011.10.016.
45. Stock ML, Coetzee JF. Clinical pharmacology of analgesic drugs in cattle. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract.2015;31(1):113-38. doi: 10.1016/j.cvfa.2014.11.002.
46. Smith J, Coetzee JF, Fisher IWG, Borts DJ, Mochel JP. Pharmacokinetics of fentanyl citrate and norfentanyl in Holstein calves and effect of analytical performances on fentanyl parameter estimation. J Vet Pharmacol Ther.2018;41(4):555-561. doi: 10.1111/jvp.12501.
47. Coetzee JF, Gehring R, Tarus-Sang J, Anderson DE. Effect of sub-anesthesic xylazine and ketamine (‘ketamine stun’) administered to calves immediately prior to castration. Vet Anaesth Analg.2010;37(6):566-578. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-2995.2010.00573.x.
48. Bravo L, Mico JA, Berrocoso E. Discovery and development of tramadol for the treatment of pain. Expert Opin Drug Discov.2017;12(12):1281-1291. doi: 10.1080/17460441.2017.1377697.
49. Natalini CC, Robinson EP. Evaluation of the analgesic effects of epidurally administered morphine, alfentanil, butorphanol, tramadol, and U50488H in horses. Am J Vet Res.2000;61(12):1579-1586. doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2000.61.1579.
50. Altunkaya H, Ozer Y, Kargi E, Ozkocak I, Hosnuter M, Demirel CB, Babuccu O. The postoperative analgesic effect of tramadol when used as subcutaneous local anesthetic. Anesth Analg.2004;99(5):1461-4. doi: 10.1213/01.ANE.0000135640.21229.A0.
51. Kamiloglu A, Kamiloglu NN, Ozturk S, Atalan G, Kılıc E. Clinical assessment of epidural analgesia induced by xylazine-lidocaine combination accompanied by xylazine sedation in calves. Ir Vet J. 2005;58(10):567-70. doi: 10.1186/2046-0481-58-10-567.
52. Baniadam A, Afshar FS, Ahmadian F. Analgesic effects of tramadol hydrochloride administered via caudal epidural injection in healthy adult cattle. Am J Vet Res.2010;71(7):720-725. doi: 10.2460/ajvr.71.7.720.
53. Naeine AT, Rezakhani A, Fazlinia J. Clinical Evaluation of Epidural Administration of Morphine, Fentanyl, Methadone, Lidocaine and Lidocaine with Epinephrine in Cattle. Pakistan Vet J. 2004; 24(1):31-32.
54. Nogueira GM, Perri SHV, Santos PSP, Rodrigues CA. Pedometry applied to a comparative study using morphine and tramadol in bovine. Cienc Anim Bras. 2019;20:1-11. doi: 10.1590/1089-6891v20e-44627.
55. Silva LS, Ulsenheimer BC, Frank BGD, Cruz FSF, Rossi FWW, Bedendo GHM, Morais LE, Machado RZ, Jappe RR. Epidural administration flow of xilazine or tramadol in cows. Braz J Anim Environ Res. 2019;2(1):482-489.
2. Nunes MHV, Pacheco AD, Wagatsuma JT. Recognition and assessment of pain in cattle: Review. PUBVET.2021;15(6):1-12. doi: 10.31533/pubvet.v15n06a831.1-12.
3. Millman ST. Behavioral Responses of Cattle to Pain and Implications for Diagnosis, Management, and Animal Welfare. Vet Clin North Food Anim Pract. 2013;29(1):47–58. doi: 10.1016/j.cvfa.2012.11.007.
4. Wagner BK, Nixon E, Robles I, Baynes RE, Coetzee JF, Pairis-Garcia MD. Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs: Pharmacokinetics and Mitigation of Procedural-Pain in Cattle. Animals. 2021;11(2):282. doi: 10.3390/ani11020282.
5. Richebé P, Capdevila X, Rivat C. Persistent Postsurgical Pain - Pathophysiology and Preventative Pharmacologic Considerations. Anesthesiology. 2018.129(3):590-607. doi: 10.1097/ALN.0000000000002238.
6. Mathews K, Kronen PW, Lascelles D, Nolan A, Robertson SA, Steagall PVM, Wright B, Yamashita K. WSAVA Guidelines for Recognition, Assessment And Treatment Of Pain. J Small Anim Pract. 2014; 55(6):E10-68. doi: 10.1111/jsap.12200.
7. Whay HR, Shearer JK. The Impact of Lameness on Welfare of the Dairy Cow. Vet Clin North Food Anim Pract. 2017;33(2):153-164. doi: 10.1016/j.cvfa.2017.02.008.
8. ACVA. American college of veterinary anesthesiologists’ position paper on the treatment of pain in animals. J Am Vet Med Assoc [Internet].1998 [cited 2021 Apr 10]; 213(5):628–630. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9731254/.
9. Crook A. Introduction: Pain: An Issue of Animal Welfare. In: Egger Cm, Love L, Doherty T. Pain Management in Veterinary Practice. Iowa (USA): John Wiley & Sons; 2014. Chap 1. p. 1-8.
10. Ryan S, Bacon H, Edenburg N, Hazel S, Jouppi R, Lee N, Seksel K, Takashima G. WSAVA animal welfare guidelines for veterinary practitioners and veterinary teams. J Small Anim Pract. 2019;60(5):1-46. doi: 10.1111/jsap.12998.
11. Robles I, Arruda AG, Nixon E, Johnstone E, Wagner B, Edwards-Callaway L, Baynes R, Coetzee J, Pairis-Garcia M. Producer and Veterinarian Perspectives towards Pain Management Practices in the US Cattle Industry. Animals. 2021;11(1):209. doi: 10.3390/ani11010209.
12. Becker J, Reist M, Steiner A. Factors influencing the attitudes of cattle veterinarians, farmers, and claw trimmers towards the pain associated with the treatment of sole ulcers and the sensitivity to pain of dairy cows. Vet J. 2014;200(1):38-43 doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.01.016.
13. Laven R. Managing pain in lame cattle. Livestock. 2018; 23(4):161-167. doi: 10.12968/live.2018.23.4.161.
14. Stilwell GT, Ferrador AM, Santos MS, Domingues JM, Carolino N. Use of topical local anesthetics to control pain during treatment of hoof lesions in dairy cows. J Dairy Sci. 2019;102(7):6383-6390. doi: 10.3168/jds.2018-15820.
15. Anderson DE, Muir WW. Pain Management in Ruminants. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract. 2005;21(1):19-31. doi: 10.1016/j.cvfa.2004.12.008.
16. Canozzi MEA, Borges JAR, Barcellos JOJ. Attitudes of cattle veterinarians and animal scientists to pain and painful procedures in Brazil. Prev Vet Med. 2020;177:104909. doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2020.104909.
17. Remnant JG, Tremlett A, Huxley JN, Hudson CD. Clinician attitudes to pain and use of analgesia in cattle: where are we 10 years on? Vet Rec. 2017;181(15):400. doi: 10.1136/vr.104428.
18. Sunilchandra U, Ravikumar C, Rashmi R. Analgesics in animal pain management. Pharma Innovation J. 2020;9(4):205-209.
19. Raja SN, Carr DB, Cohen M, Finnerup NB, Flor H, Gibson S, Keefe FJ, Mogil JS, Ringkamp M, Sluka KA, Song X-J, Stevens B, Sullivan MD, Tutelman PR, Ushida T, Vader K. The revised International Association for the Study of Pain definition of pain: concepts, challenges, and compromises. Pain. 2020;00(00):1-7. doi: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001939.
20. Penning JP. Pre-emptive analgesia: what does it mean to the clinical anaesthetist? Can J Anaesth.1996; 43(2):97-101. doi: 10.1007/BF03011247.
21. Fein A. Nociceptors and the Perception of Pain. Farmington: University of Connecticut Health Center; 2014.
22. Rossetti RB, Mastrocinque S, Macedo J. Treatment of persistent postoperative pain after ovariohysterectomy in female dogs: a comparative study between tramadol or maropitant. Revista Interdisciplinar Saúde Educação. 2020;1(2):109-121.
23. Bond GB, Almeida R, Ostrensky A, Molento CFM. Welfare assessment methods and critical points for dairy cattle. Cienc. Rural.2012;42(7):1286-1293. doi: 10.1590/S0103-84782012005000044.
24. Fantoni DT, Mastrocinque S. Fisiopatologia e Controle da Dor. In: Fantoni DT, Cortopassi SRG. Anestesia em Cães e Gatos. 2nd ed. São Paulo: Roca; 2010. Chap. 35, p. 521-544.
25. Alimura AAS, Tognoli GK. Pathophysiology of pain and the use of morphine for analgesia in cats. REVET. 2021;6(1):1-9.
26. Lorenz MD, Coates JR, Kent M. Handbook of veterinary neurology. 5th ed. Missouri: Elsevier Saunders; 2011. Pain; p. 413-431
27. Moura, DDMG. Pathophysiology of Chronic Pain [dissertation] [Internet]. Coimbra (Portugal): Faculdade de Medicina – Universidade D Coimbra; 2020 [cited 2021 Abr 3]. Available from: https://www.academia.edu/44681839/MESTRADO_INTEGRADO_EM_MEDICINA_TRABALHO_FINAL_Fisiopatologia_da_Dor_Cr%C3%B3nica_ARTIGO_DE_REVIS%C3%83O_%C3%81REA_CIENT%C3%8DFICA_DE_FISIOPATOLOGIA.
28. Teixeira FM. Comparative assessment of the effect of anti-inflammatory drugs with acupuncture on the model of post-incisional pain in rats. [dissertation] [Internet]. Seropédica (Rio de Janeiro): Instituto de Veterinária, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro; 2010 [cited 2021 Abr 3]. Available from: https://tede.ufrrj.br/jspui/handle/jspui/4040.
29. Sneddon LU. Comparative Physiology of Nociception and Pain. Physiology. 2018;33(1):63-73. doi: 10.1152/physiol.00022.2017.
30. Posso IP, Romanek RM, Gatto BEO. Dor Aguda e Inflamação. In: Bagatini A, CangianI LM, Carneiro AF, Nunes RR. Bases do ensino da Anestesiologia. Rio de Janeiro: Sociedade Brasileira de Anestesiologia; 2017. Chap ME 30 Ponto 50, p.1119-1140.
31. Klaumann PR, Wouk AFPF, Sillas T. Pathophysiology of pain. Arch Vet Sci.2008;13(1):1-12. doi: 10.5380/avs.v13i1.11532.
32. Júnior JOO, Junior CSAP, Cohen CP. Inflammatory mediators of neuropathic pain. Rev Dor.2016;17(1):35-42. doi: 10.5935/1806-0013.20160045.
33. Aleixo GAS, Tudury EA, Coelho MCOC, Andrade LSS, Bessa ALNG. Pain treatment in small animal: physiopathology and recognition of pain (literature review: part I). Med Vet (UFRPE).2016;10(1):19-24.
34. Silva FL, Silva CRA, Costa APR. Surgical treatment of pain in dogs and cats: Review. Vet Foco. 2011;9(1):57-75.
35. Jang Y, Kim M, Hwang SW. Molecular mechanisms underlying the actions of arachidonic acid-derived prostaglandins on peripheral nociception. J Neuroinflamm.2020;17(1):30. doi: 10.1186/s12974-020-1703-1.
36. Zakka T, Jacobsen-Teixeira M. Dor neuropática. Diagnóstico e tratamento. Med Int Méx. 2020;36(1):9-12. doi: 10.24245/mim.v36id.3781.
37. Melzack R, Wall PD. Pain Mechanisms: A New Theory. AAAS.1965; 150(3699):971-979.
38. Melzack R, Wall, PD. Textbook of Pain. 4th ed. London: Churchill Livingstone; 1999.
39. Ashmawi HÁ, Freire GMG. Peripheral and central sensitization. Rev Dor.2016;17(1):31-34. doi: 10.5935/1806-0013.20160044.
40. Coetzee JF, Shearer JK, Stock ML, Kleinhenz MD, Van Amstel SR. An Update on the Assessment and Management of Pain Associated with Lameness in Cattle. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract. 2017;33(2):389-411. doi: 10.1016/j.cvfa.2017.02.009.
41. Kukanich B; Wiese AJ. Opioids. In: Grimm KA, Lamont LA, Tranquilli WJ, Greene SA, Robertson SA. Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia: Lumb and Jones. 5th ed. Iowa: Wiley Blackwell; 2015. Chap. 11, 207-226.
42. Pasternak GW, Pan Y-X. Mu opioids and their receptors: evolution of a concept. Pharmacol Rev. 2013;65(4):1257-317. doi: 10.1124/pr.112.007138.
43. Anderson DE, Edmondson MA. Prevention and management of surgical pain in cattle. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract.2013;29(1):157-84. doi: 10.1016/j.cvfa.2012.11.006.
44. Coetzee JF. A review of pain assessment techniques and pharmacological approaches to pain relief after bovine castration: Practical implications for cattle production within the United States. Appl Anim Behav Sci. 2011;135:192-213. doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2011.10.016.
45. Stock ML, Coetzee JF. Clinical pharmacology of analgesic drugs in cattle. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract.2015;31(1):113-38. doi: 10.1016/j.cvfa.2014.11.002.
46. Smith J, Coetzee JF, Fisher IWG, Borts DJ, Mochel JP. Pharmacokinetics of fentanyl citrate and norfentanyl in Holstein calves and effect of analytical performances on fentanyl parameter estimation. J Vet Pharmacol Ther.2018;41(4):555-561. doi: 10.1111/jvp.12501.
47. Coetzee JF, Gehring R, Tarus-Sang J, Anderson DE. Effect of sub-anesthesic xylazine and ketamine (‘ketamine stun’) administered to calves immediately prior to castration. Vet Anaesth Analg.2010;37(6):566-578. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-2995.2010.00573.x.
48. Bravo L, Mico JA, Berrocoso E. Discovery and development of tramadol for the treatment of pain. Expert Opin Drug Discov.2017;12(12):1281-1291. doi: 10.1080/17460441.2017.1377697.
49. Natalini CC, Robinson EP. Evaluation of the analgesic effects of epidurally administered morphine, alfentanil, butorphanol, tramadol, and U50488H in horses. Am J Vet Res.2000;61(12):1579-1586. doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2000.61.1579.
50. Altunkaya H, Ozer Y, Kargi E, Ozkocak I, Hosnuter M, Demirel CB, Babuccu O. The postoperative analgesic effect of tramadol when used as subcutaneous local anesthetic. Anesth Analg.2004;99(5):1461-4. doi: 10.1213/01.ANE.0000135640.21229.A0.
51. Kamiloglu A, Kamiloglu NN, Ozturk S, Atalan G, Kılıc E. Clinical assessment of epidural analgesia induced by xylazine-lidocaine combination accompanied by xylazine sedation in calves. Ir Vet J. 2005;58(10):567-70. doi: 10.1186/2046-0481-58-10-567.
52. Baniadam A, Afshar FS, Ahmadian F. Analgesic effects of tramadol hydrochloride administered via caudal epidural injection in healthy adult cattle. Am J Vet Res.2010;71(7):720-725. doi: 10.2460/ajvr.71.7.720.
53. Naeine AT, Rezakhani A, Fazlinia J. Clinical Evaluation of Epidural Administration of Morphine, Fentanyl, Methadone, Lidocaine and Lidocaine with Epinephrine in Cattle. Pakistan Vet J. 2004; 24(1):31-32.
54. Nogueira GM, Perri SHV, Santos PSP, Rodrigues CA. Pedometry applied to a comparative study using morphine and tramadol in bovine. Cienc Anim Bras. 2019;20:1-11. doi: 10.1590/1089-6891v20e-44627.
55. Silva LS, Ulsenheimer BC, Frank BGD, Cruz FSF, Rossi FWW, Bedendo GHM, Morais LE, Machado RZ, Jappe RR. Epidural administration flow of xilazine or tramadol in cows. Braz J Anim Environ Res. 2019;2(1):482-489.
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2021-11-29
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Gaia de Sousa F, Carvalho Souza R, Lilian Beier S, Sousa Barcelos B, José Souza Araújo K. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF PAIN AND USE OF OPIOIDS IN CATTLE. RVZ [Internet]. 2021 Nov. 29 [cited 2024 Nov. 21];28:1-15. Available from: https://rvz.emnuvens.com.br/rvz/article/view/604
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